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The Genetic Architecture & Natural History of Pigmentation
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    516JD1M3N5L._SX323_BO1,204,203,200_ I got curious about pigmentation about ten years when reading the coda to Armand Leroi’s Mutants: On Genetic Variety and the Human Body, where he observes curiously that after all these decades geneticists still didn’t understand very well the basis of normal variation in skin color. I read that in the summer of 2005, so Armand had probably written it in 2004 (he can correct me if he has time, he occasionally comments here). Depending on how you view it, it was a fortunate or unfortunate time to write something like this. Over the past ten years geneticists have solved the basis of normal variation in human pigmentation. In fact, most of the major work was completed between 2005 and 2007. In December of 2005 Science published SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans. The authors reported that rs1426654 was nearly disjoint in distribution between Africans and Europeans, and, that it explained on the order of 1/3 of the variance in pigmentation between the two populations (European populations are fixed for the A allele, Africans for the G allele).

    41h+3YmTZRL._SX329_BO1,204,203,200_ There are several facts just within that statement that illustrates why pigmentation genomics has been such a success in comparison to other domains tackled by the new methods. First, pigmentation pathways seem to be somewhat constrained across animals, so model organisms can given us a lot of insight and clues. A lot of the pigmentation genes, such as KITLG, TYR, and SLC24A5, actually increase or decrease melanin production and alter tissue specific expression just as they do in humans, across vertebrates. Second, the fact that I just named genes off the top of my head highlights the fact that are a few conserved loci that explain most of the variance, crop up in study after study. This is in contrast to height, where the variance is distributed across thousands of genes, and the only one I can name off the top of my head is HGMA2. And it explains a princely ~0.3% of the variance of the trait.

    This wasn’t entirely a surprise. I happen to have had a copy of The Genetics of Human Populations. In it, L. L. Cavalli-Sforza reported on a classical pedigree analysis of individuals in Britain of varying levels of African ancestry dating to the 1950s. In particular, in genetic jargon the study focused on the variance in trait values between parentals, F1 individuals, and “back-cross” individuals (as well as a few F2 individuals from what I recall). The research concluded that pigmentation was probably controlled by on the order of 10 genes or so. In particular, the authors suggested that the trait was unlikely to be highly polygenic, which for the designs of that period really meant more than a dozen loci or so, beyond which they lacked the power to differentiate the number of independent effects with any precision (i.e., they wouldn’t be able to distinguish between a trait where 25 loci explain 90% of the variance, and a trait where 500 loci explain 90% of the variance). Third, pigmentation loci exhibit a relatively high pairwise Fst. That is, most of the variation on many of these alleles is partitioned between populations, rather than within them. Obviously that is convenient when you are trying to detect associations between genes and phenotypes which are partitioned on an inter-continental scale.

    The illustration with SLC24A5 is pretty straightforward; the frequency of the derived allele is 100% in Europeans, and over 99% ancestral in unadmixed Sub-Saharan Africans. In the 1000 Genomes frequency in the Utah white American sample of the derived A allele is 100% (out of 99 individuals). In the 91 British individuals it is 100%. In the Tuscan set of 107, there are 213 A alleles, and 1 G allele. In the 107 Spanish individuals, the A allele is at 100%. In contrast, for the Yoruba Nigerian data set, there are 3 A alleles for 213 G variants. For the Esan of Nigeria, it is 5 A for 193 G. For the Chinese samples from Beijing, 6 A alleles, and 200 G. At this point you might think that the A variant at this SNP position is diagnostic of European ancestry, but it is not. I, for example, am homozygous for the A variant, as are both of my parents. In the 1000 Genomes data there are 25 Bengalis who are AA, 42 who are AG, and 19 who are GG. In the Sri Lankan Tamil population A is at 49% frequency.

    F1.medium The figure to my left is from Heather Norton’s Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians, and it uses neighbor-joining trees to represent genetic distances at particular loci then known (2007) to be implicated in inter-continental variation in pigmentation. The abbreviations are pretty self-evident, WA=West African, NA = Native American, EA = East Asian, IM = Island Melanesian, SA = South Asian, and EU = European. What you see is that pigmentation genes are not particularly phylogenetically representative. That is, whole genome relationships, whereby all non-Africans form one clade set against Africans, are not reflected here. Looking at these patterns, you would have inferred that Europeans were the outgroup. And, the lowest genetic distance from West Africans are Island Melanesians. What’s going on here is Island Melanesians and West Africans have similar phenotypes in skin color, and that is being reflected in these genes. Roughly, Melanesians and West Africans exhibit a fair amount of functional constraint around pigmentation genes. They haven’t changed much. In contrast, East Asians and Europeans actually are not too different in their pigmentation on a world-wide scale, but that is not reflected in these trees. Why? As is made clear in the title of Norton et al.’s paper East Asians and Europeans arrived at their phenotypes via different mutational paths. I say different mutational paths because there is a broad overlap in genes, but, the alleles are often different (different SNPs or regulatory elements within the gene).

    One of the questions that I often get is how to translate genetic variation into realized trait value shifts in individuals, as opposed to simply proportion of variation explained within the population. Luckily, geneticists who study pigmentation have a quantitative unit, a “melanin index” (MI), which naturally utilizes the fact that individuals with darker skin exhibit less reflectance. But there are two problems giving a simple answer to these sorts of questions. First, a substitution of an allele may have an average effect, but, that effect may not be realized for various reasons (e.g., epistasis). And there are still individual differences between people with the exact same genotype. Second, that effect manifests within a population, and different populations have different mixes of alleles.

    

    Screenshot from 2015-08-14 22:52:45 The table to the left is adapted from The Light Skin Allele of SLC24A5 in South Asians and Europeans Shares Identity by Descent. I think we can agree that the results here fit our intuitions. These are averages. Some of the populations in this list, such as the South Asian ones, as well as African Americans, exhibit a lot of variance within population. We now know why; they have a lot of segregating variants. Even within families you can see variation across siblings of quite an extreme nature. The subtle difference between Europeans and East Asians comports with my experience too. The American white population is mostly Northern European, so this is probably a bit on the low side in MI for a typical European population. A paper on Cuban pigmentation genetics given a median MI for self-identified whites as 34. The ancestry is 86% European, 7% African, and 7% Native American, in this set. Therefore the average Iberian probably is somewhat lighter complected, but not by much. Notice how much darker Bougainville Islanders are than African Americans. Though the latter may be “black” in figurative terms, Bougainville Islanders are black in literal terms. Along with some Sudanic people they are among the darkest skinned in the world. In these data Tamil Brahmins are at 41. These are people whose surnames are often, but not always, Iyer. The stereotype, and my personal experience, is that the modal Tamil Brahmin is light to medium brown. Some are rather dark, while a few may have complexions that veer on brunette white. To be honest in my personal experience I have not met any Tamil Brahmins whose skins are white, though it has not been uncommon for me to meet such individuals with such fair skins from Northwest India, in particular Punjabis and Kashmiris (the best way to judge for me is meeting people in real life, as I’ve heard that Indian celebrities often are made up in a way that lighten them up somewhat).

    The supplements of the paper have allele frequencies of SLC24A5 for various castes. Kashmiri Pandits are at >95% frequency for the A allele. Other Brahmins are at ~80%, irrespective of whether they are in the North or South. Punjabis, irrespective of caste are at ~95%. Middle castes in South India, like the Reddy and Naidu, are at ~60 to 65%. Chamars, a Dalit caste in North India clock in at 68%, while the Toda people of the Nilgiri plateau of the far south of India have a derived allele frequency of 86%. The low caste individuals in Bihar at 78%. At the other end of the distribution some of the Austro-Asiatic tribes have very low frequencies. The Juang people for example are at 7%. Part of this may just be recent East Asian admixture. But it can’t explain all of it, these groups are mostly of the same component elements as other South Asians, albeit at fractions skewed toward the Ancestral South Indians (ASI). I don’t see any geographic pattern that suggests why selection would happen in certain regions and not in others, though it is suggestive that the Kashmiris and Toda are both living at high elevations, so are the Austro-Asiatic groups. I’ll get back to this paper when we talk about selection, but I’ll set it aside for now.

    journal.pgen.1003372.g007
    Rather, what are the effects on MI of substitutions of particular alleles at given genes again? The paper on Cuban admixture and pigmentation genetics and another using Cape Verde as the population of interest are particular useful, because these two data sets have a wide range in ancestral quanta (these are not the only papers with these sorts of results, but this post isn’t a literature review!). The figure to the right is from the second paper, and shows the effect size in standardized units of variants which were statistically significant in their study. Pretty much every study tends to come to the conclusion that SLC24A5 is the biggest effect locus in the genome on this trait if the data set includes substantial West Eurasian ancestry. The main qualification I’d put on that is that East Asians have been understudied for this trait, so the European derived alleles are much more well understood. Be as that maybe, each substitution of SLC24A5 derived allele, A, reduces MI by ~5 units. That is, it’s additive to a first approximation. Some studies do show a mild dominance effect…but of the A allele. That is, light is dominant to dark (e.g., in the Cape Verde study GG is further away from GA than AA is). It’s actually a consistent result. This is curious, because many people believe that dark skin is dominant to light skin. Thanks to genetics we know in a quantitative sense that that’s not true. In fact, perhaps the reverse is on SLC24A5 and KITLG (concretely, individuals who are heterozygous will be lighter than you would expect going by mid-parent mean).

    But, in a qualitative sense it is true, because many people simply “bin” complexion into white and non-white, with the latter encompassing a range all the way from pale olive-brown to black. Really the perception is a function of human culture, and ideas of contagion. I don’t like to make invidious accusations of racism often (I don’t think they’re warranted most of the time), but the perception that dark skin is dominant over white skin seems pretty easily explained by hypodescent within a framework of white racial superiority and exclusivity. Most people who have this impression are not racist at all, but, as per the cliche they’ve internalized some perspectives about the recessive nature of whiteness which derives from a model whereby racial purity is essential and necessary for white identity. And, as I like to say, revealed preferences are telling. The majority of whites rapturously reading Ta-Nehisi CoatesBetween the World and Me have mostly white friends, live in mostly white neighbors, and date mostly white people. Yes, some of this is happenstance, but a sequence of events which consistently fall in one direction indicate preferences at variance with avowals of racial neutrality (Seinfeld and Girls operate in core white social worlds in a riotously diverse megalopolis where whites are a minority; believe it or not you can be friends mostly with people who are not the same race and exhibit good mental health, just ask me about my experience).

    With that sociological tangent out of the way, what does this mean? What if I was GG, instead of AA, on SLC24A5? You would expect I’d be about 10 MI units darker. Instead of being an average complected South Asian, neither dark nor fair, I’d be a dark skinned one. As the above statistics suggest it is very rare to find someone of unadmixed European background who carries a G allele at this SNP. But some do exist in the above data, so what would they look like? Let’s take a Northern European, with an MI ~30. The predicted value is about the same as for a “white Cuban.” In other words, they would be swarthy, notably so in Northern Europe. How about two alleles, so they are a homozygote for the ancestral allele, G. You don’t really see Europeans with this genotype at all today. Assuming all other loci the same (e.g., probably the derived variant on SLC45A2), it looks as if you’d expect this Northern European substituted at that SNP be about the same complexion as many Northern Indians today. Though some Northern Indians can pass as white, they are not common. Most are visibly brown in some sense.

    But wait, there’s more! SLC45A2 is not as strong an effect as SLC24A5, but it’s still significant. In the Cuban study a substitution at its major SNP of interest has an effect of ~3 units. If the genotypes at both these loci were ancestral homozygous in a Northern European, then the expected MI would be > 45. That’s around where the Senoi of Malaysia are. Definitely brown, a touch on the darker shade. Then there are other loci, TYR, TYRP1, ASIP, KITLG, and APBA2. Few enough that I can name, but enough that touching on each would be repetitious and boring. SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 seem relevant to pigmentation anytime you have a West Eurasian population in the mix. The other loci are hit and miss. But one thing that comes out of the studies in admixed populations is that there is still a significant residual that has not been accounted for in this variation. In the Cape Verde study 44% of the variance seems to be due to “genomic ancestry.” That is, African vs. European. The implication here is that the loci we’re catching are at the large effect end of the long tail of distribution of effects, and there are smaller effect loci still segregating which we haven’t picked up. In European populations where a lot of this work began only a few large effect loci may be segregating, with the others being fixed, and so not variable. This doesn’t change the big picture about the genomic architecture. But, it’s more like half a dozen loci can explain half the heritable variation, as opposed to 90%. At least in that study (it seems that the population you are studying matters for the final summary statistic).

    eye I left OCA2 and HERC2 out of the above list for a reason. Looking at them alone gives me a reason to post this beautiful figure of eye color distributions on a two dimensional axis. As most of you may know, SNPs in the OCA2 and HERC2 region of the genome account for most of the blue vs. brown eye color variation in Europeans. Eye color varies less in human populations, and fewer genes likely effect this variation. In the Cape Verde sample the proportion of variation explained by African vs. European ancestry was 44% (the r-squared). For eye color? A mere 8% (note that they used an RGB quantification scale, rather than binning phenotypes). The correlation between skin color and eye color in this data set was 0.38, so 14% of the variation of eye color could be explained by variance of skin color.

    kartandtinki1_vanessa-williams_03.jpgThe combination of brown skin and light eyes in women such as Vanessa Williams, the first black Miss America, is totally understandable. All black Americans with roots in this country have ancestry that goes back to the 18th century at the latest, and all of them have white American ancestry (I’ve looked at a lot of black American genotypes; they’re mostly African, but all have some European ancestry, and I literally mean all). So the derived variants around OCA2 and HERC2 are segregating at frequencies weighted by European ancestry in African Americans, ~20% × 75%, so 0.152, which implies that a few percent of African Americans should have light eyes. While skin color seems mostly additive, eye color does seem to exhibit a recessive expression pattern for the lighter variants. Therefore you need to square the q element of the Hardy-Weinberg equation in this case.

    kgt But are the variants that result in blue eyes only relevant for eye color? Might they not explain skin color as well? That depends. The Cape Verde study did not find any of the blue vs. brown eye color SNPs to correlate with skin color when one controlled for genomic ancestry and the state of a nearby pigmentation gene. In contrast, the Cuba study did find that an OCA2 marker had an effect on skin color, a little over 1 MI units. This is a smaller effect compared to SLC24A5 obviously, but it is still an effect. As I indicated above, if you follow this literature you notice that a few genes have major effects no matter how you mix and match the data set and population coverage. Others are spottier, and may not reach statistical significance, depending on your mix of populations. It is important to not make one study dispositive of any particular thesis.

    What about hair color? While blue eyes are the majority state in much of Northern Europe, blonde hair in adults is rarer. This makes sense when you notice that one of the major pigmentation genes associated with blonde hair, KITLG, in a derived allele, only has a frequency of that allele at 15% in much of Northern Europe. That means that only a few percent of individuals are homozygote. The above image of mice is from A molecular basis for classic blond hair color in Europeans. The individual in the middle is a heterozygote. The authors claim that they can see a subtle effect. I suppose it’s there if you squint (my son is a heterozygote, and I will report his hair is lighter than his sister’s, who is homozygote for the ancestral variant). The individual to the right in the figure is an pale homozygote for the derived allele. This locus also shows up in cats and horses in generating tissue specific depigmentation, though in humans it has also been implicated in skin color and testicular cancer as well (yes, you read that right!).

    But the scientific story about pigmentation isn’t simply one of GWAS after GWAS. There’s a huge evolutionary story here involving classic population genetic parameters, in particular natural selection. Many of these alleles have been implicated in selective sweep events. That is, the allele has increased in frequency very rapidly, often very recently. One major tell is that there are long haplotype blocks around these alleles. This means that there are sequences of variants closely associated with each other, which is suggestive of the fact that they’re co-inherited together as a unit in a region of the genome where the frequency is increasing faster than recombination can break apart the association. The region around OCA2 and HERC2 is Europeans is the third longest haplotype in the Northern European genome. SLC24A5 is a long haplotype that has very little variation in it from which one can infer structure. The paper above, The Light Skin Allele of SLC24A5 in South Asians and Europeans Shares Identity by Descent, the authors sequence the region around that locus to smoke out variation. There just isn’t that much time for the derived allele for to have accrued mutations. They conclude that the SNP in SLC24A5 responsible for lighter skin derives from a common mutation across all the populations in which it is prevalent. That is, the SNP spread through migration or selection from one individual, rather than the extant variation of a population, so that there were several genetic backgrounds from which selection could. A paper from 2013, Molecular phylogeography of a human autosomal skin color locus under natural selection, attempts to look at the haplotype patterns with a bigger population coverage but lower marker density. It comes to the conclusion that “The distributions of C11 and its parental haplotypes make it most likely that these two last steps occurred between the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent.” In other words, the SNP took off from a launching pad in West Asia. If you look at their evidence it is modest at best, they don’t have many variants to generate haplotypes, especially in a genetic region which lacks diversity.

    10K0 All this talk about the past has been about inference. In the South Asian paper they use Bayesian methods to infer that the derived allele SLC24A5 arose in a genetic background which coalesces 20-30 thousand years ago, with enormous confidence intervals on the order of tens of thousands of years. You don’t know much more than you already did, as the distribution of the derived variant strongly suggests it arose after East and West Eurasians diverged. Haplotype based methods suggest that the sweep up in frequency increased only in the last 5-10 thousand years.

    So what do the ancient DNA tell us? The figure to the left is from Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe. You can see that there is a transect in time of alleles in Northern Europe. Blue is the variant in SLC24A5, green is SLC45A2, and red is OCA2. The variation in allele frequencies over time are pretty similar to what you’d expect for a positive selective sweep, which is what the genomics is telling us occurred. The sweep of SLC24A5 is to fixation. This makes sense on an additive trait where selection prefers homozygote state to heterozygote state. SLC45A2 is close to fixation, though not as total as SLC24A5. Its trajectory has been more gentle, indicating a lower selection coefficient, a least across its arc up toward fixation. For OCA2 the pattern looks like one of demographic decline, as it was fixed in European hunter-gatherers. And yet at some point the frequency began to increase again. As this region of the genome has a long haplotype it’s suggestive of selection, and not just demographic change. Since blue eyes are recessive one major issue for any selective model that hinges on this trait is how selection would be effective at lower frequencies. E.g., if 20% of the population has the alleles then only 4% of the population has the favored trait.

    Of course there is Population Genomics in Bronze Age Eurasia, which has a much larger number of SNPs. But unfortunately as they went with a whole genome methodology, they didn’t target the most important functional markers, but caught a lot of tag SNPs which are associated with the major ones. You can find the list for the populations in the supplements, but there are a lot of other genes. I took the table and filtered it for pigmentation SNPs, and also added the ones from the above paper. There is one overlap, at OCA2. As most of the SNPs are not super critical, I just paired them down to really informative ones. You can access the full spreadsheet here.

    Bronze Age
    SNP gene Africa N_Eur S_Asia S_Eur Asia Eur Step HG Neo SHG WHG EN BA Yam
    rs12821256 KITLG 0.00 0.17 0.03 0.05 0.13 0.07 0.33 0.00 0.10
    rs1805005 MC1R 0.00 0.08 0.01 0.20 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00
    rs1805007 MC1R 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
    rs1805008 MC1R 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00
    rs1805009 MC1R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
    rs2228479 MC1R 0.00 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.00 0.13 0.20 0.00 0.00
    rs885479 MC1R 0.00 0.12 0.08 0.03 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
    rs885479 MC1R 0.00 0.12 0.08 0.03 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
    rs12913832 OCA2 0.01 0.85 0.08 0.30 0.40 0.41 0.00 1.00 0.56 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.1
    rs2470102 SLC24A5 0.05 1.00 0.73 1.00 0.94 0.95 1.00 0.33 0.88
    rs28777 SLC45A2 0.12 0.98 0.23 0.95 0.50 0.61 0.33 0.43 0.56
    rs35395 SLC45A2 0.16 0.98 0.23 0.95 0.78 0.56 0.00 0.20 0.33
    rs1426654 SLC24A5 0.00 1.00 0.69 1.00 0.65 0.18 0.9 1 1
    rs16891982 SLC45A2 0.00 0.98 0.06 0.90 0.65 0.00 0.2 0.75 0.4

    erin-chambers-05 I didn’t mention MC1R much above because it doesn’t explain much variance. It’s well known for two things. First, there’s a huge body of research from the era of classical mouse genetics on this locus because of its importance in fur coloration, and coat color across mammals in general. Second, a lot of knockouts at this locus seems a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for being red-haired or a ginger. The decreased production in eumelanin combined with constitutive production of pheomelanin results in a reddish tinge. Most people have pheomelanin, but it’s masked by emelanin. When I’ve bleached my hair there are two stages. First, the eumelanin gets stripped out, and my hair is left reddish/copper colored. Then a second bleaching removes the pheomelanin.

    Before the “golden age” of pigmentation genetics, basically between December of 2005 and the end of 2007, there was a lot of exploration of MC1R because that’s where the light was. Here’s a paper from 2000, Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R:

    It is widely assumed that genes that influence variation in skin and hair pigmentation are under selection. To date, the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is the only gene identified that explains substantial phenotypic variance in human pigmentation. Here we investigate MC1R polymorphism in several populations, for evidence of selection. We conclude that MC1R is under strong functional constraint in Africa, where any diversion from eumelanin production (black pigmentation) appears to be evolutionarily deleterious. Although many of the MC1R amino acid variants observed in non-African populations do affect MC1R function and contribute to high levels of MC1R diversity in Europeans, we found no evidence, in either the magnitude or the patterns of diversity, for its enhancement by selection; rather, our analyses show that levels of MC1R polymorphism simply reflect neutral expectations under relaxation of strong functional constraint outside Africa.

    The basic model here is that MC1R started losing function due to relaxation of constraint, and variation started to become dominated by neutral processes. It turns out that Neanderthals too had variation around MC1R. Further investigation suggests that modern Europeans don’t seem to have this variant. More recent evidence suggests that some haplotypes did introgress from Neanderthals at this locus, though perhaps into East Asians far more than Europeans.

    So look at the MC1R SNPs in the table above. Neolithic and HG samples are all fixed for the derived variant. That is, one reason it seems implausible that the diversity of MC1R in Europe today is due to long term drift in situ is that it didn’t exist in the continent before the arrival of people from the steppe.

    Second, rs12821256, in KITLG, associated with blonde hair in Europeans, is also no present in the ancient hunter-gatherers. But, it is present in the Neolithic farmers, as well as the people coming from the steppe. In fact the steppe samples have a higher fraction than any modern population (in the 1000 Genomes the frequency is ~20% in the British and Finnish samples). Remember, KITLG has been implicated in skin depigmentation in several studies, though the effect size is more modest than SLC24A5.

    For the two solute carrier genes the trends are what we already knew. The frequency for 24A5 is high in the steppe, in fact, fixed, and high among the Neolithic farmers. It is low in Western European hunter-gatherers, and segregating at modest frequencies among the Scandinavian hunter-gatherers. The work above suggestions that the genetic background around rs1426654, which is a nonsynonomous change, dates to the Upper Paleolithic. But, both ancient DNA and haplotype based selection methods suggest that in places like Europe and India the frequency of this allele and its flanking sequence have been rapidly rising over the past ~10,000 years. The fact that some European hunter-gatherers had the derived variant of rs1426654, seems to confirm the idea that this mutation arose during the Ice Age, and was widely distributed. But, we can’t really adduce where the particular variant came from until we get good haplotype data from these ancient samples. Let me quote from Molecular Phylogeography of a Human Autosomal Skin Color Locus Under Natural Selection:

    With sufficiently strong positive selection for C11, it is possible that this haplotype could have originated anywhere within its current range and spread via local migration. However, selection acting in concert with major population migrations would have facilitated a much more rapid dispersal. Archeological, mitochondrial, and Y-chromosomal data suggest involvement of multiple dispersals in shaping the current populations of Europe and the Middle East (Soares et al. 2010). Because A111T is far from fixation in most Indian samples (Table S1), the high diversity of B-region haplotypes associated with C11 in the GIH sample may be the result of prolonged recombination rather than early arrival of A111T. In fact, the decrease in frequency of A111T to the east of Pakistan suggests that C11 originated farther to the west and after the initial genetic split between western and eastern Eurasians. On this basis, we hold the view that an origin of C11 in the Middle East, broadly defined, is most likely.

    Where does this leave us? First, we understand the genetic architecture of normal variation in pigmentation in humans to a good degree. Depending on how much residual there is in smaller effect QTLs there are publications to come which will probably yield a few more genes, but the remaining variance may simple be distributed across many small-effect loci. Second, the frequency of many pigmentation genes seems have changed due to natural selection. in South Asia and Ethiopia the methods have been able to detect genomic signatures of positive selection at SLC24A5. It can’t be ancestry alone, just look at table S5 for South Asia. The range across populations is huge, even if you exclude those with enriched East Asian ancestry.

    Third, we don’t really know why this selection occurred across these pigmentation genes. This is going to sound strange of course. There are many theories out there. Readers regularly ask me what I think about Peter Frost’s thesis. My standard response is that I’m skeptical, but who knows? Peter has asserted that the selection he speaks of began in a very narrow delimited area in northeastern Europe. In the next few years we will have ancient DNA and be able to test some of his predictions. A more widely accepted thesis is promoted by Nina Jablonski in Skin: A Natural History. In her model at lower latitudes selection constrains variation due to high UV, while at higher latitudes there is relaxation of that constraint, and selection for vitamin D synthesis. The story is neat, but selection for SLC24A5 at lower latitudes, and higher elevation as those latitudes, occurs.

    gh_map_world_v7The map to the left makes clear that the Sudan has some of the highest radiation levels in the world. It is reasonable then that people in this area would have darker skin than anywhere else. But Ethiopia’s radiation levels are not that much lower. And yet we know that there hasn’t been strong selection against the light skin alleles presumably derived from West Eurasian migrants. Rather, the reverse has occurred! None of the parsimonious models seem to explain very well the complexity on offer here.

    Then, as Graham Coop observed in response to an Ewen Callaway piece in Nature where the latter inferred that European hunter-gatherers must have been dark skinned and blue eyed because of what genetics implies, we don’t really know the genetic architectures of pigmentation of ancient individuals. The reason is simple: we have genotype data, but not phenotype data. East Asians and Western Europeans converge upon lighter complexions via diverse genetic mechanisms, so why couldn’t ancient European hunter-gatherers be the same? This is a fair point. And, if true, then selection on pigmentation loci couldn’t, by definition, target pigmentation, since there wouldn’t be much heritable phenotypic variation to select upon.

    401px-Vanuatu_blonde-200x300 But in response to the idea we should be phenotype-agnostic, pigmentation is one of the most well characterized traits for mammals in regards to the genetics. The parameter space of possibilities is not infinitely constrained. The same genes, and sometimes same mutations, re-occur across different populations. The reason some Melanesians have blonde hair is due to a mutation in TYRP1. Again, this is a locus implicated in pigmentation variation across many populations, and in other mammalian lineages. If we had good high quality whole genome sequences we could actually look for functional mutations across a set of pigmentation loci. If ancient European hunter-gatherers were functionally constrained around the pigmentation genes, or subject to neutral dynamics, that would be informative. A better characterization of all the diverse modern populations will probably give us better expectations of the size of the parameter space of genetic variation and how it maps onto phenotypic variation.

    I’ve been giving a lot of thought to this topic for a while. And I have to say that in terms of the evolutionary origin of this trait and its variation, I’m left befuddled. After talking to researchers who are on the cutting edge in this area I’m pretty sure they are confused, too. That’s not dispiriting; that’s the state of science before discoveries push the edge of knowledge further. But, I’d also appreciate it if in response to this very long post readers don’t go Google Pundit on me and start throwing down a list of publications which resolve all these problems. I’m moderately familiar with this literature, and have probably internalized studies which go in both directions. In response to a post into which I put more effort over the last day than I probably should have, I expect the comments to be not-annoying. Or else (I assume you know what’s in that conditional!).

     
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    1. toto says:Show Comment

      I hope you enjoyed the beer you had after writing that. :p

      So the derived variants around OCA2 and HERC2 are segregating at frequencies weighted by European ancestry in African Americans, ~20% × 75%, so 0.15^2, which implies that a few percent of African Americans should have light eyes.

      I’m confused here (even more than usual, I mean). Where does the 75% number come from? Why the squaring sign (because two genes? homozygosity?) ?

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    2. At this point you might think that the A variant at this SNP position is diagnostic of European ancestry, but it is not. I, for example, am homozygous for the A variant, as are both of my parents. In the 1000 Genomes data there are 25 Bengalis who are AA, 42 who are AG, and 19 who are GG. In the Sri Lankan Tamil population A is at 49% frequency.

      Suppose I hold the following “stupid” model of the world: “several thousand years ago, in a period of history that was not well recorded, Aryans speaking a language closely related to Sanskrit invaded India from the northwest, leaving cultural and demographic marks that persist into the present”. Could I say that the A variant in modern Indians is diagnostic of the “European” ancestry brought by those Aryans? How much sense does that make?

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      • Replies: @Razib Khan
      @Michael Watts

      http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929713003248 i bet the aryan component is a minority in most of the indo-european speaking parts of the subcontinent. it's not from them 1) high frequency in s. india among dravidian groups 2) A is found across west asia, and in ethiopia. it's connected to plenty of non-IE groups 3) i think the dominant fraction of ancestral north indian in most of the subcontinent is more like west asian 4) there's selection in situ. the fraction in some groups, like kashmiri pandits, is near 100%. but genome-wide they're at least 30% ancestral south indian; i.e., NOT west eurasian

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    3. beer is too high cal. wine mon frere.

      sorry, the derived frequency in british populations is like ~0.75. and yes, squared from p^2+2pq+q^2, it’s the q^2 term for recessive. you’ve been reading this blog for a while, surprised it wasn’t obvious 😉

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    4. @Michael Watts
      At this point you might think that the A variant at this SNP position is diagnostic of European ancestry, but it is not. I, for example, am homozygous for the A variant, as are both of my parents. In the 1000 Genomes data there are 25 Bengalis who are AA, 42 who are AG, and 19 who are GG. In the Sri Lankan Tamil population A is at 49% frequency. 
      Suppose I hold the following "stupid" model of the world: "several thousand years ago, in a period of history that was not well recorded, Aryans speaking a language closely related to Sanskrit invaded India from the northwest, leaving cultural and demographic marks that persist into the present". Could I say that the A variant in modern Indians is diagnostic of the "European" ancestry brought by those Aryans? How much sense does that make?

      http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929713003248

      i bet the aryan component is a minority in most of the indo-european speaking parts of the subcontinent. it’s not from them

      1) high frequency in s. india among dravidian groups

      2) A is found across west asia, and in ethiopia. it’s connected to plenty of non-IE groups

      3) i think the dominant fraction of ancestral north indian in most of the subcontinent is more like west asian

      4) there’s selection in situ. the fraction in some groups, like kashmiri pandits, is near 100%. but genome-wide they’re at least 30% ancestral south indian; i.e., NOT west eurasian

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    5. SD says:Show Comment

      Among Tamil Brahmins, you will see more lighter people among Vadakalai Iyengars : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadakalai
      They are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and some in Andhra.

      Example:
      CM of Tamil Nadu, Jayalalitha ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jayalalithaa )
      Actress Hema Malini ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hema_Malini )
      Actor Kamal Haasan ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal_Haasan )

      In South Brahmins, except for Iyers, others use father’s first name as their surnames. So, it is not as easy as Iyers to identify them based on surname. I have seen only some people use their actual surname Iyengar.

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      • Replies: @Razib Khan
      @SD

      according to zack ajmal's results there is no genome-wide difference between iyers and iyengars (i am aware of the religious difference). so if this is true it is due to variation at the skin color loci specifically, whether through selection or drift. or perhaps it's this particular subsect. i don't know.

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    6. Spoons says:Show Comment

      What part of the body is used to measure the melanin index? I have heard (sorry, can’t remember where) that the underarm is used because it is not exposed to the sun. This could explain the discrepancy between the MI numbers and people perceiving darker alleles as dominant. When people are getting a sense of how heterozygotes look they aren’t looking at their underarms; they are looking at parts exposed to the sun.

      Also, I really appreciate you posting that eye color graph. I’d like to learn more about how eye color works. My children and I have some strange eye colors that don’t fit the middle school punnett squares at all.

      Read More
      • Replies: @Razib Khan
      @Spoons

      good point. it's the unexposed skin. so underarms.

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    7. Sean says:Show Comment

      “The map to the left makes clear that the Sudan has some of the highest radiation levels in the world. It is reasonable then that people in this area would have darker skin than anywhere else. But Ethiopia’s radiation levels are not that much lower. And yet we know that there hasn’t been strong selection against the light skin alleles presumably derived from West Eurasian migrants. Rather, the reverse has occurred! None of the parsimonious models seem to explain very well the complexity on offer here.”

      The problem with Nina Jablonski’s UVB theory is in her maps the UV radiation is being averaged over the year.

      Report on vitamin D commissioned by the US and Canadian governments from the National Academies Institute of Medicine –

      Page 104. “Kimlin et al. (2007), using computer modeling, concluded that it may no longer be correct to assume that vitamin D levels in populations follow latitude gradients. Indeed, the relationship between UVB penetration and latitude is complex, as a result of differences in, for example, the height of the atmosphere (50 percent less at the poles), cloud cover (more intense at the equator than at the poles), and ozone cover. The duration of sunlight in summer versus winter is another factor contributing to the complexity of the relationship. Geophysical surveys have shown that UVB penetration over 24 hours, during the summer months at Canadian north latitudes when there are many hours of sunlight, equals or exceeds UVB penetration at the equator (Lubin et al., 1998).”

      Page 492 The relationship between UVB penetration and latitude is complex and not merely a function of distance from the equator. Other factors that come into play include the reduced atmosphere at the poles (about 50 percent less than at the equator), more cloud cover at the equator than at the poles, differences in ozone cover, and the duration of sunlight in summer versus winter. Geophysical surveys have indicated that UVB penetration over 24 hours during the summer months at Canadian north latitudes equals or exceeds UVB penetration at the equator (Lubin et al., 1998), suggesting that persons living in the northern latitudes are not necessarily receiving notably less total sunlight during the year. Rather, it suggests that there may be considerable opportunity during the spring, summer, and fall months in the far north for humans to form vitamin D and store it in liver and fat. Likewise, animals living in the same region that are consumed as part of the traditional diet are also rich sources of vitamin D (Keiver et al., 1988; Kenny et al., 2004; Brunborg et al., 2006; Kuhnlein et al., 2006).
      These factors help to explain why latitude alone does not appear to predict serum 25OHD concentrations in humans. In a Finnish study, healthy subjects living above the Arctic Circle (latitude 66°N) did not have lower serum 25OHD levels than subjects living in southern Finland; in fact, the group living above the Arctic Circle had higher levels. Both groups achieved mean serum 25OHD levels above 90 nmol/L during the summer, whereas the mean serum 25OHD level at the winter nadir was 56 nmol/L in the south and 68 nmol/L in those living above the Arctic Circle (Lamberg-Allardt et al., 1983)

      There was a dark skinned prehistoric person at Motala, and there are even darker people living in modern Sweden and similar latitudes without any diminution of their vigour or virility, to put it mildly. Across equatorial Africa skin is darker in the east than it is in the west. There is a correlation with polygyny, Bougainville Island is 6th parallel south.

      The finding that people on the latitude of central Europe had dark skin and light eyes surely indicates selection for appearance of eyes; and given that, selection for appearance of skin is not a huge jump. I am not sure what SLC24A5 was selected for in sunny places like Ethiopia, but possibly it was marriage practices. Suppose high status men in those societies were particularly unwilling to take wives darker than they were, so alleles for light skin conferred superior reproductive fitness.

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      • Replies: @Razib Khan
      @Sean

      i agree that selection pressures are kind of muddled, though obviously there are no very light skinned people at the tropics. please read my post more closely. light eyes express in a recessive fashion. as per the HWE when it is at 10% frequency, only 1% would be light eyed. in other words, weak/no selection. i've been repeating this point for years, and people keep ignoring this detail. don't. also, the haplotype is very long. this means that it likely swept up in frequency reasonably fast (that seems the case looking at ancient DNA). recessive alleles where the recessive traits are the target of selection have shorter haplotypes because they tend to be persist at low frequency for longer and are subject to recombination. i hope this is my last comment on this issue.

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    8. @Sean
      "The map to the left makes clear that the Sudan has some of the highest radiation levels in the world. It is reasonable then that people in this area would have darker skin than anywhere else. But Ethiopia’s radiation levels are not that much lower. And yet we know that there hasn’t been strong selection against the light skin alleles presumably derived from West Eurasian migrants. Rather, the reverse has occurred! None of the parsimonious models seem to explain very well the complexity on offer here."

      The problem with Nina Jablonski's UVB theory is in her maps the UV radiation is being averaged over the year.

      Report on vitamin D commissioned by the US and Canadian governments from the National Academies Institute of Medicine –

      . “Kimlin et al. (2007), using computer modeling, concluded that it may no longer be correct to assume that vitamin D levels in populations follow latitude gradients. Indeed, the relationship between UVB penetration and latitude is complex, as a result of differences in, for example, the height of the atmosphere (50 percent less at the poles), cloud cover (more intense at the equator than at the poles), and ozone cover. The duration of sunlight in summer versus winter is another factor contributing to the complexity of the relationship. Geophysical surveys have shown that UVB penetration over 24 hours, during the summer months at Canadian north latitudes when there are many hours of sunlight, equals or exceeds UVB penetration at the equator (Lubin et al., 1998).”
      There was a dark skinned prehistoric person at Motala, and there are even darker people living in modern Sweden and similar latitudes without any diminution of their vigour or virility, to put it mildly. Across equatorial Africa skin is darker in the east than it is in the west. There is a correlation with polygyny, Bougainville Island is 6th parallel south.

      The finding that people on the latitude of central Europe had dark skin and light eyes surely indicates selection for appearance of eyes; and given that, selection for appearance of skin is not a huge jump. I am not sure what SLC24A5 was selected for in sunny places like Ethiopia, but possibly it was marriage practices. Suppose high status men in those societies were particularly unwilling to take wives darker than they were, so alleles for light skin conferred superior reproductive fitness.

      i agree that selection pressures are kind of muddled, though obviously there are no very light skinned people at the tropics.

      light eyes surely indicates selection for appearance of eyes;

      please read my post more closely. light eyes express in a recessive fashion. as per the HWE when it is at 10% frequency, only 1% would be light eyed. in other words, weak/no selection. i’ve been repeating this point for years, and people keep ignoring this detail. don’t. also, the haplotype is very long. this means that it likely swept up in frequency reasonably fast (that seems the case looking at ancient DNA). recessive alleles where the recessive traits are the target of selection have shorter haplotypes because they tend to be persist at low frequency for longer and are subject to recombination.

      i hope this is my last comment on this issue.

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    9. @Spoons
      What part of the body is used to measure the melanin index? I have heard (sorry, can't remember where) that the underarm is used because it is not exposed to the sun. This could explain the discrepancy between the MI numbers and people perceiving darker alleles as dominant. When people are getting a sense of how heterozygotes look they aren't looking at their underarms; they are looking at parts exposed to the sun.

      Also, I really appreciate you posting that eye color graph. I'd like to learn more about how eye color works. My children and I have some strange eye colors that don't fit the middle school punnett squares at all.

      good point. it’s the unexposed skin. so underarms.

      Read More
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    10. @SD
      Among Tamil Brahmins, you will see more lighter people among Vadakalai Iyengars : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadakalai
      They are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and some in Andhra.

      Example:
      CM of Tamil Nadu, Jayalalitha ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jayalalithaa )
      Actress Hema Malini ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hema_Malini )
      Actor Kamal Haasan ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal_Haasan )


      In South Brahmins, except for Iyers, others use father's first name as their surnames. So, it is not as easy as Iyers to identify them based on surname. I have seen only some people use their actual surname Iyengar.

      according to zack ajmal’s results there is no genome-wide difference between iyers and iyengars (i am aware of the religious difference). so if this is true it is due to variation at the skin color loci specifically, whether through selection or drift. or perhaps it’s this particular subsect. i don’t know.

      Read More
      • Replies: @rec1man
      @Razib Khan

      Iyengars are mostly converts from Iyers, during the last 1000 years Specifically, Vadakalai Iyengars are converts mostly from Vadama Iyer The Iyengar founder, Ramanuja, was born in a Vadama Iyer family

      , @vijay
      @Razib Khan

      I want to vouch that white Iyengar (vis-a-vis other Brahmins) is a made up fantasy; Iyengars are a spin-off from general Brahminic population with a small percentage and about 1000 years of history. In general, Brahmin population of south India are not representative of the South Indian population, and can be excused from discussions of genetics, pigmentation, etc, as a one-off. It is possible to pick some people from any caste an hold them as representatives of that caste.

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    11. @Razib Khan
      @SD

      according to zack ajmal's results there is no genome-wide difference between iyers and iyengars (i am aware of the religious difference). so if this is true it is due to variation at the skin color loci specifically, whether through selection or drift. or perhaps it's this particular subsect. i don't know.

      Iyengars are mostly converts from Iyers, during the last 1000 years

      Specifically, Vadakalai Iyengars are converts mostly from Vadama Iyer

      The Iyengar founder, Ramanuja, was born in a Vadama Iyer family

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    12. vijay says:Show Comment
      @Razib Khan
      @SD

      according to zack ajmal's results there is no genome-wide difference between iyers and iyengars (i am aware of the religious difference). so if this is true it is due to variation at the skin color loci specifically, whether through selection or drift. or perhaps it's this particular subsect. i don't know.

      I want to vouch that white Iyengar (vis-a-vis other Brahmins) is a made up fantasy; Iyengars are a spin-off from general Brahminic population with a small percentage and about 1000 years of history.

      In general, Brahmin population of south India are not representative of the South Indian population, and can be excused from discussions of genetics, pigmentation, etc, as a one-off. It is possible to pick some people from any caste an hold them as representatives of that caste.

      Read More
      • Replies: @Razib Khan
      @vijay

      we don't need to talk about this as if i didn't post the table above with MI values. that's one reason i posted it. south asians are touch about skin color and always asserting that their own group is lighter skinned ;-) well, there the numbers be...

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    13. @vijay
      @Razib Khan

      I want to vouch that white Iyengar (vis-a-vis other Brahmins) is a made up fantasy; Iyengars are a spin-off from general Brahminic population with a small percentage and about 1000 years of history. In general, Brahmin population of south India are not representative of the South Indian population, and can be excused from discussions of genetics, pigmentation, etc, as a one-off. It is possible to pick some people from any caste an hold them as representatives of that caste.

      we don’t need to talk about this as if i didn’t post the table above with MI values. that’s one reason i posted it. south asians are touch about skin color and always asserting that their own group is lighter skinned 😉 well, there the numbers be…

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    14. ,

      Thanks for the info. Looks like there is not even a percentage difference between the two from Harappa DNA.

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      • Replies: @Razib Khan
      @SD

      south india brahmins are all very similar.

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    15. ohwilleke says: • WebsiteShow Comment

      My intuition is that variability in MI as measured by standard deviation, and some measure of variability in genotypic frequencies that would measure variability by local subgroup, would be quite informative. Low variability would imply some combination of stronger selective effects and longer time elapsed since near fixation.

      The intensity of the light skinned selection in Europe is really striking because while there are lots of mechanisms that one could imagine would select, perhaps even strongly select for light skin in Europe, few of the pressures would call for 100% selection. Selection pressures related to skin cancer or TB resistance (due to Vitamin D production in sunlight) could have powerful effects, but not total fixation at 100% of the light skinned version. LP which was also under very strong, apparently fitness based selection, under quite similar notions about what would make it fitness enhancing, never reached fixation for all of Europe.

      Founder effects and genetic drift also seem highly implausible. The founding population of Europe may not have been huge, but it is far bigger and involved far more waves of migration than the Americas or Australia, for instance. Ancient DNA also doesn’t seem to support this hypothesis. We know to a certainty that pretty much none of the waves completely wiped out its predecessors in the right time period in Europe.

      Also, at the time that selection would have taken place in Europe, if it took place in Europe, there wouldn’t have been any cultural incentives to try to distinguish between a European in group and an African or SE Asian out group, because most Europeans had only the faintest idea that such people existed and almost none had ever seen anyone of that pigmentation as of even 1500 CE.

      Yet, it is hard to imagine a reason other than some strong cultural preference that could have produced 100% selection. And, given the history of human behavior in societies in which light skinned and dark skinned people co-existed, it is hard for me to believe that this could have happened through adult mate selection. Skin color might have shut someone out of the legitimate marriage market in some historic European culture, but surely not from illegitimate affairs that would produce children.

      Genocide of entire adult populations also doesn’t cut it as an explanation, because at the time that selection was taking place, there would have been significant intragroup variation, not just intergroup variation.

      Given all of those considerations, the narrative that seems to make the most sense might be that light skin color developed a folk association with likelihood of survival to adulthood, and that Bronze Age and Iron Age European families may have routinely engaged in infanticide of dark pigmented infants on the theory that the child was likely to be sickly and not survive while being a burden growing up (or perhaps for more superstitious reasons as time passed and actual experience was absent due to the infanticide practice), in much the way that a modern couple might choose to have an abortion for a Down’s syndrome fetus.

      We know that infanticide with those kinds of motives, and relatively fuzzy standards about what made an infant eligible for infanticide was practiced in the Roman Empire. Eventually, the specific case of pigmentation infanticide may have became obsolete because people stopped having dark pigmented babies because that gene was purged from the gene pool.

      If dark pigmentation had some measureable impact on fitness, either due to actual functional traits, or due to discrimination that evolved over time, one could even imagine European myths about dark, small people and changlings deriving from beliefs that had emerged during the purge era about dark pigmented babies that didn’t thrive quite as well due to lack of Vitamin D.

      Read More
      • Replies: @Razib Khan
      @ohwilleke

      LP is due to a dominant trait effect allele. so once it goes to ~90% it's going to be hard to get much past that. yep. also, http://judithrichharris.info/n2a/medhyp.htm

      , @Spoons
      @ohwilleke

      Infanticide would only work as a mechanism if the trait were recessive. At least one of the parents is going to be fairly dark. Light people willing to accept dark people as mates aren't likely to kill their non-light babies. Furthermore, dark skin isn't fully expressed at birth, which is going to mute any hostility to non-light babies. I think that a two-stage model is possible: in stage one the light allele spreads rapidly for whatever reason. In stage two men's natural propensity for light skinned mates (and women's propensity for average mates) pushes it to fixation. If stage one pushes it to, say 95% then it might only take a few generations to push it to fixation.

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    16. @SD
      @Razib Khan,

      Thanks for the info. Looks like there is not even a percentage difference between the two from Harappa DNA.

      south india brahmins are all very similar.

      Read More
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    17. @ohwilleke
      My intuition is that variability in MI as measured by standard deviation, and some measure of variability in genotypic frequencies that would measure variability by local subgroup, would be quite informative. Low variability would imply some combination of stronger selective effects and longer time elapsed since near fixation.

      The intensity of the light skinned selection in Europe is really striking because while there are lots of mechanisms that one could imagine would select, perhaps even strongly select for light skin in Europe, few of the pressures would call for 100% selection. Selection pressures related to skin cancer or TB resistance (due to Vitamin D production in sunlight) could have powerful effects, but not total fixation at 100% of the light skinned version. LP which was also under very strong, apparently fitness based selection, under quite similar notions about what would make it fitness enhancing, never reached fixation for all of Europe.

      Founder effects and genetic drift also seem highly implausible. The founding population of Europe may not have been huge, but it is far bigger and involved far more waves of migration than the Americas or Australia, for instance. Ancient DNA also doesn't seem to support this hypothesis. We know to a certainty that pretty much none of the waves completely wiped out its predecessors in the right time period in Europe.

      Also, at the time that selection would have taken place in Europe, if it took place in Europe, there wouldn't have been any cultural incentives to try to distinguish between a European in group and an African or SE Asian out group, because most Europeans had only the faintest idea that such people existed and almost none had ever seen anyone of that pigmentation as of even 1500 CE.

      Yet, it is hard to imagine a reason other than some strong cultural preference that could have produced 100% selection. And, given the history of human behavior in societies in which light skinned and dark skinned people co-existed, it is hard for me to believe that this could have happened through adult mate selection. Skin color might have shut someone out of the legitimate marriage market in some historic European culture, but surely not from illegitimate affairs that would produce children.

      Genocide of entire adult populations also doesn't cut it as an explanation, because at the time that selection was taking place, there would have been significant intragroup variation, not just intergroup variation.

      Given all of those considerations, the narrative that seems to make the most sense might be that light skin color developed a folk association with likelihood of survival to adulthood, and that Bronze Age and Iron Age European families may have routinely engaged in infanticide of dark pigmented infants on the theory that the child was likely to be sickly and not survive while being a burden growing up (or perhaps for more superstitious reasons as time passed and actual experience was absent due to the infanticide practice), in much the way that a modern couple might choose to have an abortion for a Down's syndrome fetus.

      We know that infanticide with those kinds of motives, and relatively fuzzy standards about what made an infant eligible for infanticide was practiced in the Roman Empire. Eventually, the specific case of pigmentation infanticide may have became obsolete because people stopped having dark pigmented babies because that gene was purged from the gene pool.

      If dark pigmentation had some measureable impact on fitness, either due to actual functional traits, or due to discrimination that evolved over time, one could even imagine European myths about dark, small people and changlings deriving from beliefs that had emerged during the purge era about dark pigmented babies that didn't thrive quite as well due to lack of Vitamin D.

      LP which was also under very strong, apparently fitness based selection, under quite similar notions about what would make it fitness enhancing, never reached fixation for all of Europe.

      LP is due to a dominant trait effect allele. so once it goes to ~90% it’s going to be hard to get much past that.

      Founder effects and genetic drift also seem highly implausible. The founding population of Europe may not have been huge, but it is far bigger and involved far more waves of migration than the Americas or Australia, for instance. Ancient DNA also doesn’t seem to support this hypothesis. We know to a certainty that pretty much none of the waves completely wiped out its predecessors in the right time period in Europe.

      yep.

      also, http://judithrichharris.info/n2a/medhyp.htm

      Read More
      • Replies: @ohwilleke
      @Razib Khan

      Thanks for both insights. The Judith Rich Harris paper is right along the lines of what I have suggested except that I think that her emphasis on infanticide being a decision made by mothers as opposed to fathers is probably contrary to the historical evidence regarding the practice.

      One also wonders to what extent infanticide was used by fathers in cases of suspected cuckoldry. This would have been easier to identify (or at least believe one was accurately identifying, perhaps inaccurately in fact) in the case of a skin color trait.

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    18. @Razib Khan
      @ohwilleke

      LP is due to a dominant trait effect allele. so once it goes to ~90% it's going to be hard to get much past that. yep. also, http://judithrichharris.info/n2a/medhyp.htm

      Thanks for both insights. The Judith Rich Harris paper is right along the lines of what I have suggested except that I think that her emphasis on infanticide being a decision made by mothers as opposed to fathers is probably contrary to the historical evidence regarding the practice.

      One also wonders to what extent infanticide was used by fathers in cases of suspected cuckoldry. This would have been easier to identify (or at least believe one was accurately identifying, perhaps inaccurately in fact) in the case of a skin color trait.

      Read More
      • Replies: @Razib Khan
      @ohwilleke

      cuckoldry as a driver of things like this never works well. think about it: dark skinned men in a white skinned tribes would have an advantage at identification. fitness would be negative frequency dependent so you'd have polymorphism. this also explains why blue eyes isn't good to smoke out cuckoldry. at low frequencies all your kids will look like other people, and at high frequencies everyone has the same allele.

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    19. @ohwilleke
      @Razib Khan

      Thanks for both insights. The Judith Rich Harris paper is right along the lines of what I have suggested except that I think that her emphasis on infanticide being a decision made by mothers as opposed to fathers is probably contrary to the historical evidence regarding the practice.

      One also wonders to what extent infanticide was used by fathers in cases of suspected cuckoldry. This would have been easier to identify (or at least believe one was accurately identifying, perhaps inaccurately in fact) in the case of a skin color trait.

      cuckoldry as a driver of things like this never works well. think about it: dark skinned men in a white skinned tribes would have an advantage at identification. fitness would be negative frequency dependent so you’d have polymorphism. this also explains why blue eyes isn’t good to smoke out cuckoldry. at low frequencies all your kids will look like other people, and at high frequencies everyone has the same allele.

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    20. Rick says:Show Comment

      Light skin and hair could have evolved to help combat an increase in the variety of disease causing ectoparasites people were exposed to. The increase was due to animal domestication (beginning with dogs, and especially including undesirable domestication, such as mice and rats).

      The selection would be greatest in sedentary farmers in regions with the coldest winters, where the people must wear heavy clothing, and the animals spend more time indoors. Also, the larger the variety of animals, the greater the selective pressure.

      The selection would be based on the ability to visually detect and remove the parasites as quickly as possible.

      A similar selection would act on desirable domesticated animals for an increasing variety of unnatural coat colorations. Especially for more than one color on the same animal.

      The variety of colors would prevent parasites from just mutating to a light color, because then they would be seen on the dark regions. This is likely part of the reason that zebras have highly contrasting black and white stripes. Parasites can not adapt easily to two very different colors on one animal, so birds can pick them off more easily.

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    21. SD says:Show Comment

      I think as stated above by multiple people all came from one source and the Harappa DNA proves it.
      As per this wiki:
      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin#Pancha-Dravida
      even Maharashtra belongs to Pancha Dravid Brahmins.
      May be you can comment on the genomes. But, I saw that in the individual participants results in Harappa DNA, Konkanashta Brahmins and some Maharashtra Brahmins have admixture similar to south brahmins.
      But I heard Chitpavan Brahmins in Maharashtra are late entries and are different. This is what I heard and I have not seen the genetic data.

      My first comment on Iyengars was based on people I know and what they had heard from their ancestors. Also, the sample size I have seen is small. I should have seen the genetic data first before commenting.

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      • Replies: @rec1man
      @SD

      There are plenty of jet-black , dravidian looking Iyengars too The Iyengar sect founder, Ramanuja, admitted lots of dravidians into his Iyengar caste http://www.worldlibrary.org/articles/thenkalai Thenkalai society, on the contrary, accepted a significant proportion of the non-Brahmin population into its fold.[

      , @Razib Khan
      @SD

      anyone south of the vindya is probably the same. i've replicated some of the harappa results with smaller data. south indian brahmins are like a combination of 75% north indian brahmin + 25% south indian generic. bengali brahmins are a bit different because they have some asiatic admixture. in fact, probably the same ratio, 75% north indian brahmin + 25% native bengali (their asian ancestry is often in the 1-5% range, so that makes sense in light of 10-20% asian ancestry in bengalis).

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    22. Spoons says:Show Comment
      @ohwilleke
      My intuition is that variability in MI as measured by standard deviation, and some measure of variability in genotypic frequencies that would measure variability by local subgroup, would be quite informative. Low variability would imply some combination of stronger selective effects and longer time elapsed since near fixation.

      The intensity of the light skinned selection in Europe is really striking because while there are lots of mechanisms that one could imagine would select, perhaps even strongly select for light skin in Europe, few of the pressures would call for 100% selection. Selection pressures related to skin cancer or TB resistance (due to Vitamin D production in sunlight) could have powerful effects, but not total fixation at 100% of the light skinned version. LP which was also under very strong, apparently fitness based selection, under quite similar notions about what would make it fitness enhancing, never reached fixation for all of Europe.

      Founder effects and genetic drift also seem highly implausible. The founding population of Europe may not have been huge, but it is far bigger and involved far more waves of migration than the Americas or Australia, for instance. Ancient DNA also doesn't seem to support this hypothesis. We know to a certainty that pretty much none of the waves completely wiped out its predecessors in the right time period in Europe.

      Also, at the time that selection would have taken place in Europe, if it took place in Europe, there wouldn't have been any cultural incentives to try to distinguish between a European in group and an African or SE Asian out group, because most Europeans had only the faintest idea that such people existed and almost none had ever seen anyone of that pigmentation as of even 1500 CE.

      Yet, it is hard to imagine a reason other than some strong cultural preference that could have produced 100% selection. And, given the history of human behavior in societies in which light skinned and dark skinned people co-existed, it is hard for me to believe that this could have happened through adult mate selection. Skin color might have shut someone out of the legitimate marriage market in some historic European culture, but surely not from illegitimate affairs that would produce children.

      Genocide of entire adult populations also doesn't cut it as an explanation, because at the time that selection was taking place, there would have been significant intragroup variation, not just intergroup variation.

      Given all of those considerations, the narrative that seems to make the most sense might be that light skin color developed a folk association with likelihood of survival to adulthood, and that Bronze Age and Iron Age European families may have routinely engaged in infanticide of dark pigmented infants on the theory that the child was likely to be sickly and not survive while being a burden growing up (or perhaps for more superstitious reasons as time passed and actual experience was absent due to the infanticide practice), in much the way that a modern couple might choose to have an abortion for a Down's syndrome fetus.

      We know that infanticide with those kinds of motives, and relatively fuzzy standards about what made an infant eligible for infanticide was practiced in the Roman Empire. Eventually, the specific case of pigmentation infanticide may have became obsolete because people stopped having dark pigmented babies because that gene was purged from the gene pool.

      If dark pigmentation had some measureable impact on fitness, either due to actual functional traits, or due to discrimination that evolved over time, one could even imagine European myths about dark, small people and changlings deriving from beliefs that had emerged during the purge era about dark pigmented babies that didn't thrive quite as well due to lack of Vitamin D.

      Infanticide would only work as a mechanism if the trait were recessive. At least one of the parents is going to be fairly dark. Light people willing to accept dark people as mates aren’t likely to kill their non-light babies. Furthermore, dark skin isn’t fully expressed at birth, which is going to mute any hostility to non-light babies.

      I think that a two-stage model is possible: in stage one the light allele spreads rapidly for whatever reason. In stage two men’s natural propensity for light skinned mates (and women’s propensity for average mates) pushes it to fixation. If stage one pushes it to, say 95% then it might only take a few generations to push it to fixation.

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    23. @SD
      I think as stated above by multiple people all came from one source and the Harappa DNA proves it.
      As per this wiki:
      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin#Pancha-Dravida
      even Maharashtra belongs to Pancha Dravid Brahmins.
      May be you can comment on the genomes. But, I saw that in the individual participants results in Harappa DNA, Konkanashta Brahmins and some Maharashtra Brahmins have admixture similar to south brahmins.
      But I heard Chitpavan Brahmins in Maharashtra are late entries and are different. This is what I heard and I have not seen the genetic data.

      My first comment on Iyengars was based on people I know and what they had heard from their ancestors. Also, the sample size I have seen is small. I should have seen the genetic data first before commenting.

      There are plenty of jet-black , dravidian looking Iyengars too

      The Iyengar sect founder, Ramanuja, admitted lots of dravidians into his Iyengar caste

      http://www.worldlibrary.org/articles/thenkalai

      Thenkalai society, on the contrary, accepted a significant proportion of the non-Brahmin population into its fold.[

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    24. @SD
      I think as stated above by multiple people all came from one source and the Harappa DNA proves it.
      As per this wiki:
      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin#Pancha-Dravida
      even Maharashtra belongs to Pancha Dravid Brahmins.
      May be you can comment on the genomes. But, I saw that in the individual participants results in Harappa DNA, Konkanashta Brahmins and some Maharashtra Brahmins have admixture similar to south brahmins.
      But I heard Chitpavan Brahmins in Maharashtra are late entries and are different. This is what I heard and I have not seen the genetic data.

      My first comment on Iyengars was based on people I know and what they had heard from their ancestors. Also, the sample size I have seen is small. I should have seen the genetic data first before commenting.

      May be you can comment on the genomes. But, I saw that in the individual participants results in Harappa DNA, Konkanashta Brahmins and some Maharashtra Brahmins have admixture similar to south brahmins.

      anyone south of the vindya is probably the same. i’ve replicated some of the harappa results with smaller data. south indian brahmins are like a combination of 75% north indian brahmin + 25% south indian generic. bengali brahmins are a bit different because they have some asiatic admixture. in fact, probably the same ratio, 75% north indian brahmin + 25% native bengali (their asian ancestry is often in the 1-5% range, so that makes sense in light of 10-20% asian ancestry in bengalis).

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    25. Sundar Pichai is an Iyengar

      This photo shows him with his parents

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    26. Sean says:Show Comment

      I don’t think Peter mentioned your haplotype length being too long for strong selection objection, I suppose it is a solid point because you have superior knowledge of genetics. He did do a post on recesssiveness, fwiiw here. You seem to acknowledge a related issue with heterozygotes for hair colour: “The above image of mice is from A molecular basis for classic blond hair color in Europeans. The individual in the middle is a heterozygote. The authors claim that they can see a subtle effect. I suppose it’s there if you squint. In theory, if the rare is what is being selected for, it kicks off for barely noticeable different shades of brown (like suit worn with pretentious ever so slightly different shade tie) and ultimately moves onto day-glow hues.

      ACCORDING to a twin study, hair is lighter in women than in men, with red hair being especially more common. Women also show more variation in hair color (Shekar et al., 2008). Again, this evolutionary trend seems to have been driven by European women with European men tagging along.

      “This [blonde hair colour] locus also shows up in cats and horses in generating tissue specific depigmentation, though in humans it has also been implicated in skin color and testicular cancer as well (yes, you read that right!). Interesting, testicular cancer could be stimulated by estrogen. According to Peter “There is also unpublished evidence that “European” hair and eye colours (i.e., non-black hair and non-brown eyes) are associated with a higher degree of estrogenization before birth, as indicated by digit ratio.”. There is a published study that face shape is more robust [masculine] among if eye color is brown (Kleisner et al., 2013)

      The above illuminating explanation that you took the trouble to give of strong selection being for things that are dominant seems to me to have bearing on SLC24A5 being rather dominant for skin lightening. Doesn’t it follow from lightening of skin with SLC24A5 being somewhat dominant that the skin lightening effect is what the target of positive selection of SLC24A5 of in south Asia and Ethiopia was for.? The skin lightening obviously couldn’t be for the reason posited for European selection of SLC24A5 (ie increased vitamin D) not in such sunny countries.

      Some kind of disease resistance conferred by SLC24A5 has been mooted. This would mean different selection of SLC24A5 for Europe and south Asia. If lighter skin simply confers an advantage by influencing male algorithms for mate choice, the same explanation can parsimoniously be used to stuff selection of SLC24A5 in freezing Europe and sunny south Asia into the same pigeonhole.

      I wouldn’t say light skin is actually sexier and the lighter the sexier; that obviously isn’t true because in the modern world girls tan to look hot. But modern sexual mores are very different to traditional ways that are tightly linked to successful reproduction, given the resources. I can see the skin colour of a heavily tanned western woman being a deal breaker for prospective good-catch husbands looking for a wife in traditional south Asian society. It is still in some cases a deal-breaker for traditional matchmaking in modern Britain among some south Asian communities. I saw a TV programme about it few years ago, and the prospective suitors asked the girls sister doing the matchmaking, over the phone about how dark the girl was. TV always picks extreme cases of course. Men in traditional societies often grow beards, but in modern society you couldn’t see the advantage of being able to grow a beard, until the recent comeback.

      Peter certainly can’t claim victory, and I suppose the HBD figures who think he is wrong, and have knowledge of genetics that he does not, represent the balance of opinion. On the other hand, he has someone on his team who had the inestimable advantage of cognating before anyone knew about vitamin D. I speak of Charles Darwin. But then again the first adaptationalist, William Charles Wells, came up with the races are the result of natural selection for climate theory before the Origin Of Species, and that is still recieved wisdom. For example Eight Thousand Years of Natural Selection in Europe, line 90 says .”and the most associated SNP is rs7940244 in our dataset is highly differentiated across closely related Northern European populations suggesting the possibility of selection related to variation in environmental sources of vitamin D”. What environmental sources vary between northern countries that much? They are taking it upon themselves to assume that living in northern European involves very fine tuned selection for maximising skin synthesis of vitamin D.

      Are the black Africans growing up in north Europe sickly and keeling over? Far from it! The ones I see are if anything a more vigorous that indigenous whites. There were concerns that blacks suffer harm at vitamin D levels normal for whites, see here. So Reich and company are talking nonsense. The real experts on the issue are The Institute of Medicine of the National Academies whose authoritative report on Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D did not recommend special supplementation of vitamin D for blacks, even in northern Canada.

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    27. The above illuminating explanation that you took the trouble to give of strong selection being for things that are dominant seems to me to have bearing on SLC24A5 being rather dominant for skin lightening.

      it could be additive to have a long haplotype. the effect in sweep trajectory isn’t that different.

      http://s1120.photobucket.com/user/Marconis/media/Picture1-2.png.html (also, look how long recessives take; doesn’t look like the OCA/HERC2 bounce back was prolonged at all, so probably not targeted recessive trait)

      alleles which express in a dominant fashion, like LCT for lactase persistence, don’t sweep to fixation. they hang around 90 to 99%. the fact that SLC24A5 is at =100%, not ~100%, strongly indicates that something in europe is reducing fitness in individuals with heterozygote state too. it wasn’t minor. it’s pretty crazy frankly to see the ancestral allele at such a low frequency so quickly.

      peter and i look at things differently because he’s an anthropologist and i’m a genomicist. that being said, i really don’t have a strong opinion anymore on the mode of selection. i don’t think we know. the results are too muddled. though obviously i can ‘poke holes’ in many theories based on what’s evident in the genomic patterns.

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    28. to be clear, OCA2 has the third longest haplotype block in the northern european genome.

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    29. j mct says:Show Comment

      I do not do population genetics so I am not sure that my feel for the math would be worth anything, but it seems to me if I am reading right (and maybe I am not) is that the 80 to 100 generation window where the dark to light skin/eye selection event occurred seems too short, at least per all the scenarios posited, specifically because they are about fairer females having an advantage. It seems to me that it would be more likely that being a fairer man would have to be the thing that matters more, in that the maximal achievable fertility difference between men dwarfs the maximal achievable difference between women, i.e think Genghis Khan.

      The mechanics of how, I’d say that sexual selection wouldn’t count, since I doubt women at the time had any say in who fathered their children so it couldn’t. Maybe if a high status man, a chief, got his pick of the women and he preferred blondes, as many gentleman do, the driver of selection here would be the high fertility of his blonde gene carrying sons, whose fertility comes about from the fact that their father is high status, not from their blondness, rather than his daughters, whose fertility might be higher than the average woman, but cannot achieve the rates their brothers could.

      Obviously polygamy would have to be the rule for all this to work, but that doesn’t seem too hard a stretch. I read somewhere that in the prehistoric past 80% of the women reproduced but only 40% of the men, which means each reproducing man has 2X the effect on future genomes that each reproducing woman.

      Lastly, human tribalism is male centered, tribes are brothers, like chimps but unlike lions or baboons. If being a member of tribe X rather than tribe Y, for whatever reason conferred an advantage, blondness might run in the family.

      So I guess I do not think that if sexual selection matter, it’s not a direct, female blondes do better thing.

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      • Replies: @Sean
      @j mct

      http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/07/15/birds-peacocks-eyespots-animals-evolution-science/

      Blonde hair is less of a handicap than peacock feathers. If men were required as providers, but could not support multiple wives, and there was a shortage of men, it would necessarily mean many women would never reproduce, but almost all surviving men.

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    30. @j mct
      I do not do population genetics so I am not sure that my feel for the math would be worth anything, but it seems to me if I am reading right (and maybe I am not) is that the 80 to 100 generation window where the dark to light skin/eye selection event occurred seems too short, at least per all the scenarios posited, specifically because they are about fairer females having an advantage. It seems to me that it would be more likely that being a fairer man would have to be the thing that matters more, in that the maximal achievable fertility difference between men dwarfs the maximal achievable difference between women, i.e think Genghis Khan.

      The mechanics of how, I'd say that sexual selection wouldn't count, since I doubt women at the time had any say in who fathered their children so it couldn't. Maybe if a high status man, a chief, got his pick of the women and he preferred blondes, as many gentleman do, the driver of selection here would be the high fertility of his blonde gene carrying sons, whose fertility comes about from the fact that their father is high status, not from their blondness, rather than his daughters, whose fertility might be higher than the average woman, but cannot achieve the rates their brothers could.

      Obviously polygamy would have to be the rule for all this to work, but that doesn't seem too hard a stretch. I read somewhere that in the prehistoric past 80% of the women reproduced but only 40% of the men, which means each reproducing man has 2X the effect on future genomes that each reproducing woman.

      Lastly, human tribalism is male centered, tribes are brothers, like chimps but unlike lions or baboons. If being a member of tribe X rather than tribe Y, for whatever reason conferred an advantage, blondness might run in the family.

      So I guess I do not think that if sexual selection matter, it's not a direct, female blondes do better thing.

      http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/07/15/birds-peacocks-eyespots-animals-evolution-science/

      Blonde hair is less of a handicap than peacock feathers. If men were required as providers, but could not support multiple wives, and there was a shortage of men, it would necessarily mean many women would never reproduce, but almost all surviving men.

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      • Replies: @Razib Khan
      @Sean

      strong sexual selection is easily checkable via Y and mtDNA (and x vs. autosome) effective pop size computation. there are issues with the details, but nothing so extreme seems evident last i checked.

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    31. @Sean
      @j mct

      http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/07/15/birds-peacocks-eyespots-animals-evolution-science/

      Blonde hair is less of a handicap than peacock feathers. If men were required as providers, but could not support multiple wives, and there was a shortage of men, it would necessarily mean many women would never reproduce, but almost all surviving men.

      strong sexual selection is easily checkable via Y and mtDNA (and x vs. autosome) effective pop size computation. there are issues with the details, but nothing so extreme seems evident last i checked.

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    32. Anonymous • Disclaimer says:Show Comment

      The conservation above reminds me of an interesting study which measured the skin reflectance of various populations and also reported the amount sexual dimorphism found in each of them. I’m not sure of the details, but their finding was men were slightly lighter-skinned than the womenfolk in many populations. Like Indian Punjabi women were slightly darker-skinned than the men.

      Living in a Punjabi-dominated city, I remember trying to size up any difference when in crowds, etc. I didn’t spot any readily apparent difference; I suppose that’s significant in itself as women here dress rather conservatively and generally try to avoid tanning while boys/young men play cricket under the sun for hours.

      Anyway, does anyone happen to recall it and have a link to the study?

      This finding was repeated for European populations, where men were again found to be lighter-skinned but women were found to be lighter-haired. Here’s Dienekes’ write-up of it: http://dienekes.blogspot.in/2012/11/gwas-study-of-pigmentation-in-four.html

      By the way, this was a great read!

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    33. Seinfeld and Girls operate in core white social worlds in a riotously diverse megalopolis where whites are a minority; believe it or not you can be friends mostly with people who are not the same race and exhibit good mental health, just ask me about my experience.

      I just wanted to say I enjoyed this comment of yours quite a bit.

      The map to the left makes clear that the Sudan has some of the highest radiation levels in the world. It is reasonable then that people in this area would have darker skin than anywhere else. But Ethiopia’s radiation levels are not that much lower. But Ethiopia’s radiation levels are not that much lower. And yet we know that there hasn’t been strong selection against the light skin alleles presumably derived from West Eurasian migrants. Rather, the reverse has occurred! None of the parsimonious models seem to explain very well the complexity on offer here.

      Compare your solar radiation map to a map of the wet bulb temperature:

      http://web.science.unsw.edu.au/~stevensherwood/wetbulb.html

      It helps explain variation within and between Sudan and Ethiopia, though not it doesn’t explain much in India. Cotton and linen might though. Linen originated in Mesopotamia or the Levant around the start of Neothilic if I recall correctly, and was pretty popular in Ancient Egypt. And those West Eurasians moving into Ethiopia would have brought with them their Semitic clothing and cultural mores.

      And wasn’t cotton clothing first developed in India and spread widely by the Indus Valley Civilization?

      Also, do you know of any studies on the genetics of the fairer pigmentation of the Khoisan by any chance? I think that would be interesting (and perhaps more informative).

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    34. If a population develops in a region which has a sufficient quantity of a particularly important nutrient and then some of them move to a region which has a deficiency in that nutrient and that population then develops an adaptation to compensate for the deficiency what might happen when those adapted genes spread back into the region with an abundance of that nutrient – maybe they give people a competitive edge?

      The benefit might not even come from the skin lightening itself i.e. a gene does x plus lighten skin and it’s the x that is being selected for.

      (and only happening in the north because skin lightening would only be a neutral side effect in the north)

      #

      Also, do you know of any studies on the genetics of the fairer pigmentation of the Khoisan by any chance? I think that would be interesting (and perhaps more informative).

      ditto on the Khoisan – as (imo) skin lightening might simply be a side-effect of something else – possibly even behavioral traits connected to monogamy.

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    35. Thank you for this gloriously long and interesting post, Razib!

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    36. Clothes reduce the need for melanin production, as would time spend inside because it’s colder

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      @Charlesss

      ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanotan_II#Bremelanotide). Not all bloggers (see above) have let me mention that. People from cold countries act differently in the sun. Sun sand sea and sex.

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    37. Anonymous • Disclaimer says:Show Comment

      It is interesting to compare the ancestry mix in the Cape Verde study you referenced to the reported allele frequencies. The research stated that the sample had a median African ancestry of 58%. They do not report a mean, but eyeballing the histogram suggests that the mean is, if anything, a bit higher. So their Cape Verde sample is no more than 42% European on average, yet the reported allele frequency for SLC24A5 is 50%. Actually, the frequencies for almost all the derived skin and eye colour loci that are shown in Table 1 are higher than expected based on the ancestry split. The exception is HERC2, which is probably explained by the fact that the European ancestry in Cape Verde is largely Southern European.

      I may well be confused, but assuming that these differences are statistically significant, would this be evidence of in situ selection for SLC24A5 and perhaps other pigmentation genes in Cape Verde? It seems like such short period of time for selection to already have a noticeable impact. If in situ selection could be proven in Cape Verde, it seems like this would narrow the range of possibilities for what could be driving selection for something like SLC24A5.

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      @Anonymous

      European males of the colonial elite choosing the mixed race women who had the most European characteristics, and those women having more surviving children?

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    38. @Charlesss
      Clothes reduce the need for melanin production, as would time spend inside because it's colder

      ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanotan_II#Bremelanotide). Not all bloggers (see above) have let me mention that. People from cold countries act differently in the sun. Sun sand sea and sex.

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    39. @Anonymous
      It is interesting to compare the ancestry mix in the Cape Verde study you referenced to the reported allele frequencies. The research stated that the sample had a median African ancestry of 58%. They do not report a mean, but eyeballing the histogram suggests that the mean is, if anything, a bit higher. So their Cape Verde sample is no more than 42% European on average, yet the reported allele frequency for SLC24A5 is 50%. Actually, the frequencies for almost all the derived skin and eye colour loci that are shown in Table 1 are higher than expected based on the ancestry split. The exception is HERC2, which is probably explained by the fact that the European ancestry in Cape Verde is largely Southern European.

      I may well be confused, but assuming that these differences are statistically significant, would this be evidence of in situ selection for SLC24A5 and perhaps other pigmentation genes in Cape Verde? It seems like such short period of time for selection to already have a noticeable impact. If in situ selection could be proven in Cape Verde, it seems like this would narrow the range of possibilities for what could be driving selection for something like SLC24A5.

      European males of the colonial elite choosing the mixed race women who had the most European characteristics, and those women having more surviving children?

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    40. Sean says:Show Comment

      The antimicrobial properties of melanocytes, melanosomes and melanin and the evolution of black skin.

      A polygyny-high testosterone-vulnerability to infectious disease nexus is a possible explanation for why black Africans are so dark, and on part of their bodies that never see the sun. Compared to the Bushmen who live in the same countries, Bantu are very dark indeed. But the Bushmen are closer to the worldwide average skin colour I think.

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    41. I posted this over at Greg Cochran’s site but now that I’ve read through this, I figure I’ll put it here too.

      My guess is that the pigment lightening SLC24A5 variant made lactose tolerance more advantageous. It is thought that SLC24A5 is related to a mechanism for controlling the maintenance of cholesterol homeostasis. In particular, it appears to protect the melanogenic process from fluctuations in dietary cholesterol.

      The introduction of milk and cheese into the diet of the steppe folks may have increased cholesterol levels, interfering with melanogensis.. The variant could have acted to ameliorate this effect. Paleness might have been, well, a side effect of helping the body deal with the effects of the new diet.

      Related papers:
      http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23224873

      http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19469904

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